Creativity in Indian science

Kapur, et.al (1997) Reports the findings of a preliminary inquiry which is part of a larger project on creativity among Indian scientists from a psychological perspective. The aim of the project is to explore the scientists' cognitive and emotional approaches to work, to understand their personality patterns, and to examine the psychosocial influences which have shaped them. The preliminary inquiry included a review of literature and an open-ended interview with 20 scientists (aged 42-59 yrs) who were asked about their definition of creativity, their understanding of creative processes and the personality characteristics of creative people. In addition, information pertaining to the impact of Indian culture on creativity and child rearing practices and codes of interpersonal relationship in India was also elicited. Interview findings were subjected to a qualitative analysis, critically examining the scientists' views against the available literature on Indian character.

Kapur, RL., Subramanyam, Susmita., Shah, Anisha. (1997). Creativity in Indian science. Psychology and Developing Societies. Vol 9 (2): 161-187

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Child abuse: An impediment to the development of creative potential in children

Pandey (2005) studied child abuse :The role of environmental setting, gender and child abuse in shaping the creative potential of children (N = 335) was investigated Results revealed that the rural and abused children scored low on various dimensions of creativity than their urban and non-abused counterparts. The boys scored higher than girls on a number of measures of creativity. The role of ecological and parental treatment of children in the process of creative development is discussed.

Pandey, Sushma. (2005). Child abuse: An impediment to the development of creative potential in children. Psychological Studies. Vol 50(2-3) 238-242

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Organizational design for enhancing the impact of incremental innovations: A qualitative analysis of innovative cases in the context of a developing e

Manimala, et.al (2005) conducted a research literature on organizational design for enhancing the impact of incremental innovations. Innovation in established firms has made a useful distinction between radical innovation and incremental innovation and identified the organizational features associated with each. An implied assumption of many such studies is that radical innovations (compared to incremental) would have a greater impact on the organization as well as the economy. While this is generally true, it is incorrect to assume that all incremental innovations could be uniformly categorized as low-impact innovations. In a study of 31 cases of innovation implemented in large corporations in India, it was observed that though all of them could be classified as 'incremental', their impact varied considerably. A combined index for assessing the impact based on the novelty of the idea, revenues generated/costs saved, dissemination within and outside the organization, extent of commercialization and patentability, was used to categorize the innovations into high impact (HI) and low impact (LI) groups. The analysis of the two groups was qualitative and was based on the detailed case studies prepared through extensive interviews of people involved in the projects. Inferences from the comparative analysis are explained under six sub-themes that emerged as important in differentiating between low and high impact innovations, namely: individual versus team action; the top management support; the role of the immediate supervisor; rewards, recognition and incentives; focus on core versus non core areas; and documenting and patenting practices. An important factor that enhances the impact of innovations is that organizations should have a deliberate innovation strategy and corresponding organizational structures and processes. Coupled with the innovation strategy, organizations should also develop and implement a value appropriation strategy.

Manimala, Mathew J., Jose, PD., Thomas,K Raju. (2005). Organizational design for enhancing the impact of incremental innovations: A qualitative analysis of innovative cases in the context of a developing economy. Creativity-and-Innovation-Management. Vol 14(4) 413-424

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Life in the Arts: Thinking About Dreams and Creativity

Stagner (2004) Reviews Dreams and Drama: Psychoanalytic Criticism, Creativity and the Artist, by Alan Roland (see record 2003-02252-000). The author is an artist, an author of plays and librettos, and a practicing psychoanalyst. Two-thirds of his clientele has drawn extensively from the artistic community. He is familiar with diverse elements of the art world, from painting to writing to dance. Likewise, he is fluent with diverse traditions within psychoanalysis from classical theory to ego psychology to the world of self-objects. Different readers will be drawn to different parts of the three sections of this book. The first section draws extensively and lucidly on the author's clinical experiences with career artists. In the next section Roland presents his insights regarding dreams and creativity. From this recasting of the psychoanalytic understanding of dreams, imagery, art, and primary and secondary process, the third section develops a fresh approach to psychoanalytic criticism. The three sections of this book are closely interconnected, but not seamlessly so. The first three chapters will be more immediately relevant to clinicians, especially those whose clients struggle with emerging artistic identities and the process of creation. Later chapters are more immediately relevant to the student or critic of art. Roland is an experienced clinician whose previous work elaborating a cross-cultural understanding of self (examining India and Japan) likewise attempt to examine disparate conceptual traditions. Here he clearly hopes that a broader, more contemporary understanding of the psychoanalysis of artists and art-making will inform a richer and more useful analysis of works of art. It is a subtle and cerebral ambition, presented in surprisingly accessible and lucid language.

Stagner, Brian H (2004). Life in the Arts: Thinking About Dreams and Creativity. PsycCRITIQUES-. Vol 49 (Suppl 14)

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Structure of word associations in relation to creativity and psychopathology

Bhandari & Upmanyu (2003) designed this study to relate different categories of word associations to various measures of creativity and psychiatric disturbances by giving due weightage to stimulus word characteristics, namely response entropy and affective connotation of stimulus word. Low Response Entropy Word Association Test, MMPI-Pd Scale, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Culture Fair Intelligence Test: Scale 3 (Form A). Torrance Test of Creative Thinking: Verbal and Figural (Form A), General Mental Ability Test, Rorschach Ink Blot Test were administered to 200 female college students in the age range of 18-24 years. The study reveals several important findings: (1) extremely unusual word associations reflect impulsive-nonconforming-sensation seeking responses, (2) extremely unusual word associations showed, negative association with impulse control, (3) word associations were structurally unrelated to psychometric as well as projective indices of creativity, (4) a negative association (though weak) was found between psychoticism and intelligence.

Bhandari, Anuradha & Upmanyu, VV. (2003). Structure of word associations in relation to creativity and psychopathology. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. Vol 29 (1-2): 1-6

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Measured intelligence, achievement, openness to experience, and creativity

Harris (2004) studied measured intelligence, achievement, openness to experience, and creativity. He tried to answer the question, are personality traits related to intelligence? This question is addressed in an in-depth examination of the correlations between, and factor structure of, measured intelligence and personality scales chosen to measure the dimensions of Openness and need for Achievement. Participants (203 adult men and 201 adult women) completed four scales of a timed, group administered, intelligence test, 10 personality scales, and a creativity measure. After principal components analysis with direct oblimin rotation, the two personality factors, Openness and Achievement, were found to have small to moderate positive correlations with an intelligence factor (which included the creativity scale), suggesting that intelligence is related to these personality trait dimensions.

Harris, Julie Aitken. (2004). Measured intelligence, achievement, openness to experience, and creativity. Personality and Individual Differences. Vol 36 (4): 913-929

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Cognitive and Motivational Characteristics of Adolescents Gifted in Mathematics: Comparisons Among Students With Different Types of Giftedness

Hong & Aqui (2004) conducted a research on cognitive and motivational characteristics of adolescents gifted in mathematics: comparisons among students with different types of giftedness. They said that although numerous studies have compared cognitive and motivational characteristics between gifted versus nongifted students, research comparing those characteristics among different types of gifted students has not kept up with the theoretical development that saw a transition from unidimensional to multidimensional conceptualizations of giftedness. This study compares cognitive and motivational characteristics of high school students who are academically gifted in math, creatively talented in math, and nongifted. Whereas no differences were found among the three groups in their beliefs about ability, most of the other characteristics examined in the study distinguished the three groups. Academically gifted female students reported expending more effort than did academically gifted male students. Creatively talented males put forth more effort than academically gifted males, and the creatively talented in general used more cognitive strategies than the academically gifted. Overall, students who were either academically gifted or creatively talented in mathematics perceived that they were self-efficacious in general, used cognitive strategies, perceived their math ability and math self-efficacy to be high, and valued learning math more so than their nongifted age peers.

Hong, Eunsook & Aqui, Yvette. (2004). Cognitive and Motivational Characteristics of Adolescents Gifted in Mathematics: Comparisons Among Students With Different Types of Giftedness. Gifted Child Quarterly. Vol 48 (3): 191-201

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Life in the Arts: Thinking About Dreams and Creativity

Stagner (2004) Reviews Life in the Arts: Thinking About Dreams and Creativity, by Alan Roland. The author is an artist, an author of plays and librettos, and a practicing psychoanalyst. Two-thirds of his clientele has drawn extensively from the artistic community. He is familiar with diverse elements of the art world, from painting to writing to dance. Likewise, he is fluent with diverse traditions within psychoanalysis from classical theory to ego psychology to the world of self-objects. Different readers will be drawn to different parts of the three sections of this book. The first section draws extensively and lucidly on the author's clinical experiences with career artists. In the next section Roland presents his insights regarding dreams and creativity. From this recasting of the psychoanalytic understanding of dreams, imagery, art, and primary and secondary process, the third section develops a fresh approach to psychoanalytic criticism. The three sections of this book are closely interconnected, but not seamlessly so. The first three chapters will be more immediately relevant to clinicians, especially those whose clients struggle with emerging artistic identities and the process of creation. Later chapters are more immediately relevant to the student or critic of art. Roland is an experienced clinician whose previous work elaborating a cross-cultural understanding of self (examining India and Japan) likewise attempt to examine disparate conceptual traditions. Here he clearly hopes that a broader, more contemporary understanding of the psychoanalysis of artists and art-making will inform a richer and more useful analysis of works of art. It is a subtle and cerebral ambition, presented in surprisingly accessible and lucid language.

Stagner, Brian H. (2004). Life in the Arts: Thinking About Dreams and Creativity. Vol 49 (Suppl 14)

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Thinking self in thinking society: Understanding self representations through george H. Mead and Serge Moscovici

Malik (2004) has studied this research with two goals: first, to search for a theoretical framework on the self that is able to take into account the dynamic interplay between the creativity of the individual and the prescriptive nature of society; and second, to provide partial empirical support for the above theoretical framework. This dissertation begins with an analysis of the current dominant approach in self-and-culture studies within empirical social psychology. This analysis concludes with illustrations of the problems of the current dominant approach. It then continues to explore George H. Mead writings on social psychology and the self and Serge Moscovici's theory of social representations. After linking the rich theoretical and conceptual insights from Mead and Moscovici, this dissertation then proposes a theoretical framework on self-representation. At the core of this framework is the notion of the self as a semiotic object, which has structure (semiotic structure, not a hard-wired one) and content. Self-representations are reflexively generated, both at the interpersonal and intrapersonal levels through the established semiotic structures. At the interpersonal level, the structure is established at the moment one is engaged with other(s) within a particular common meanings or social representations forming a trialogical structure of person 1-social representations-person 2. At the intrapersonal level the structure consist of ego-prototype-alter . Through this theoretical framework issues pertaining to self-representations, such as continuity and sameness vs. change, structure vs. content, inner and outer self, personal sense of self and cultural conception of self/person can begin to be addressed at social-psychological and cognitive levels. Two empirical studies are offered as partial support for the framework. Study 1 illustrates how self-representations are linked to the cultural and historical origin, specifically the social representations of personhood, man, woman and nationality. Study 2 is aimed at illustrating the embeddedness of self-representations within the social context, specifically how self representations vary along the continuum of social-psychological distance.

Malik, Abdul. (2004). Thinking self in thinking society: Understanding self representations through george H. Mead and Serge Moscovici. Dissertation Abstracts International : Section B : The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 64 (10-B): 5276

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Culture's influence on creativity: The case of Indian spirituality

Bhawuk (2003) In this paper, the author posits that people strive to excel in areas that are compatible with their cultural values. Since spirituality is valued in the Indian culture, it is argued that creative geniuses are readily channeled in this field of human endeavor. A historical analysis followed by a case-analytic approach using three cases is applied to examine the thesis. By building on existing theoretical frameworks, a general model of culture and creativity is presented in which culture, Zeitgeist, and genius are postulated to have reciprocal relationships in shaping creative behaviors. This paper also points out how some culture theories are unable to explain this process. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

Bhawuk, Dharm PS. (2003). Culture's influence on creativity: The case of Indian spirituality. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. Vol 27 (1): 1-22

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Hypothalamic digoxin, hemispheric chemical dominance, and creativity

Kurup & Kurup (2003) studied on hypothalamic diigoxin, hemispheric chemical dominance and creativity. They said that the human hypothalamus produces an endogenous membrane Na+-K+ ATPase inhibitor, digoxin, which regulates neuronal transmission. The digoxin status and neurotransmitter patterns were studied in creative and non-creative individuals. The activity of HMG CoA reductase and serum levels of digoxin, magnesium, tryptophan catabolites, and tyrosine catabolites were measured in creative/ non-creative Ss, and in Ss with differing hemispheric dominance ( to determine the role of cerebral dominance). In creative individuals there was increased digoxin synthesis, decreased membrane Na+-K+ ATPase activity, increased tryptophan catabolites ( serotonin, quinolinic acid, and nicotine), and decreased tyrosine catabolites (dopamine, noradrenaline, and morphine). The pattern in creative Ss correlated with right hemispheric dominance. In non-creative Ss there was decreased digoxin synthesis, increased membrane Na+-K+ ATPase activity, decreased tryptophan catabolites ( serotonin, quinolinic acid, and nicotine), and increased tyrosine catabolites (dopamine, noradrenaline, and morphine). This pattern in non-creative individuals correlated with that obtained in left hemispheric chemical dominance. Hemispheric chemical dominance and hypothalamic digoxin could regulate the predisposition to creative tendency.

Kurup, Ravi Kumar & Kurup, Parameswara Achutha. (2003). Hypothalamic digoxin, hemispheric chemical dominance, and creativity. International Journal of Neuroscience. Vol 113 (4): 565-577

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Chase, chance, and creativity: The lucky art of novelty

Austin (2003) Examines the role of chance in the creative process. The author tells a personal story of the ways in which persistence, luck, and creativity interact in biomedical research; the conclusions the author reaches sheds light on the creative process in any field.

Austin, James H. (2003). Chase, chance, and creativity: The lucky art of novelty. Cambridge, MA, US: MIT Press. xix, 245

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Faraway, so close: Code ownership over innovative work in the global software industry (India)

Metiu (2002) investigated the factors that influence the accomplishment and allocation of innovative work among distributed settings in the international software industry. Over the past 15 years, several major software development centers have emerged in various countries. The study uses ethnographic methods of participant observation in a dispersed team of software developers working across two locations-the West Coast of the US and Bangalore, India-and additional interviews with managers in companies active in offshore software development. The collaboration between remote developers is impeded by the difficulty of achieving the creative engagement needed for work on an innovative project. Group engagement is difficult to achieve and to maintain because of two main reasons. First, the numerous barriers separating the sites create a thick opacity that impedes the knowledge of work processes at the remote site. Work in the distributed setting is affected by the scarcity of the human interface, and by the absence of boundary objects that structure intense and interactive work episodes. As a result, the development of work routines and the emergence of processes-contagion, spontaneity, and reciprocity-that sustain engagement across sites are prevented. Furthermore, the status differential between the sites leads to the underutilization of available boundary objects and boundary spanners. Second, the code ownership in which engagement is rooted-responsibility over work outcomes, entailing both coding and design tasks-is jealously guarded by existing centers. The difficulty of obtaining code ownership over innovative work limits the new centers' ability to grow their capabilities and hence improve their status. The study shows that it is the emotional basis to creativity that forms the micro-foundations to the dispersion of creative work. It is the difficulty of engaging in a common activity across the multiple boundaries of geography and status that explains the fact that innovativeness thrives in proximate settings. These findings have important implications for understanding the forces that sustain agglomeration in innovation, and permit the development of capabilities in new innovative centers in the world economy.

Metiu, Anca Maria. (2002). Faraway, so close: Code ownership over innovative work in the global software industry (India). Dissertation Abstracts International Section A : Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 62 (11-A): 3852

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Trait intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, academic performance, and creativity in Hong Kong college students

Moneta & Siu (2002) examined the effects of trait intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, measured by the Work Preference Inventory (WPI; T. M. Amabile et al, 1994), on creativity and academic performance in Hong Kong college students (aged 18-24 yrs). In an experimental creative writing task, intrinsic motivation correlated with creativity. In a follow-up study, intrinsic motivation correlated negatively with yr-1 grade point average (GPA), whereas extrinsic motivation correlated positively. Findings suggest that our college environment discourages intrinsic motivation and creativity.

Moneta, Giovanni B & Siu, Christy MY. (2002). Trait intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, academic performance, and creativity in Hong Kong college students. Journal of College Student Development. Vol 43 (5): 664-683

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Technology business incubators to help build an innovation-based economy

Lalkaka (2002) Discusses the characteristics, purposes, and proliferation of technology business incubators (TBIs). TBIs do not build an innovation-based economy, but provide a catalytic input as part of a national innovation system. TBIs nurture nascent ventures by providing focused counselling and facilitation services together with smart workspace and shared office facilities. An incubator, often sited within a technology park and affiliated to a technical university or research institute, provides a platform for convergence of support in a synergistic system. The cases of incubation arrangements in China, Brazil, India, and the US show a variety of practices. The formation of a world incubation association may occur in the near future.

Lalkaka, Rustam. (2002). Technology business incubators to help build an innovation-based economy. Journal of Change Management. Vol 3 (2): 167-176

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The incentive to creativity in graduate programs according to their students / O estimulo a criatividade em programas de pos-graduacao segundo seus es

De & Eunice (2002) Investigated the degree to which graduate professors implemented instructional activities that fostered creativity, according to graduate students. The results were then compared with those obtained from undergraduate students. 92 graduate students completed an inventory of incentive to creativity and evaluated their own, their teachers' and colleagues' levels of creativity. Results show that more incentive for different factors that are associated with creativity was emphasized by the graduate students, compared to the undergraduates. Graduate students judged themselves as more creative than their professors and colleagues. Moreover, they evaluated themselves and their professors as more creative than did the undergraduate students. The conditions more favorable to creativity in the graduate courses were due possibly to the goals of the graduate courses related to the production of knowledge.

De, Alencar & Eunice, ML Soriano. (2002). The incentive to creativity in graduate programs according to their students / O estimulo a criatividade em programas de pos-graduacao segundo seus estudantes. Psicologia:-Reflexao-e-Critica. Vol 15 (1): 63-70

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The incentive to creativity in graduate programs according to their students / O estimulo a criatividade em programas de pos-graduacao segundo seus es

De & Eunice (2002) Investigated the degree to which graduate professors implemented instructional activities that fostered creativity, according to graduate students. The results were then compared with those obtained from undergraduate students. 92 graduate students completed an inventory of incentive to creativity and evaluated their own, their teachers' and colleagues' levels of creativity. Results show that more incentive for different factors that are associated with creativity was emphasized by the graduate students, compared to the undergraduates. Graduate students judged themselves as more creative than their professors and colleagues. Moreover, they evaluated themselves and their professors as more creative than did the undergraduate students. The conditions more favorable to creativity in the graduate courses were due possibly to the goals of the graduate courses related to the production of knowledge.

De, Alencar & Eunice, ML Soriano. (2002). The incentive to creativity in graduate programs according to their students / O estimulo a criatividade em programas de pos-graduacao segundo seus estudantes. Psicologia:-Reflexao-e-Critica. Vol 15 (1): 63-70

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Parents' and teachers' implicit theories of children's creativity: A cross-cultural perspective

Runco & Johnson (2002) studied the parents and teachers implicit theories of children’s creativity. A social validation methodology was applied across two cultures to examine the implicit theories of parents and teachers. Adults (N= 150) from the United States and India were rated on 68 adjectives for creativity and desirability. The results indicated that all groups distinguished between indicative and contraindicative aspects of creativity and, for the most part, viewed creative traits desirably. These results were qualified by the adjectives that received high ratings for creativity but significantly lower ratings for desirability. These provided evidence that creativity and desirability are related yet separate constructs and that parents and teachers recognize that some traits associated with creativity may be undesirable. Multiple analysis of variance ( MANOVA) revealed significant differences between the United States and India for intellectual and attitudinal clusters of adjectives, p < .001; however, parent and teacher differences were not found, p > .05. These findings support the notion that implicit theories are influenced by cultural traditions and expectations.

Runco, Mark A & Johnson, Diane J. (2002). Parents' and teachers' implicit theories of children's creativity: A cross-cultural perspective. Creativity Research Journal. Vol 14 (3-4): 427-438

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Structural cognition: A comparison of creative and non-creative adults

Riaz & Ali (2002) carried out a study to compare structural cognition and visual images of creative and non-creative individuals. The sample consisted of seventy subjects including an equal number of creative and non-creative individuals. Creative subjects were selected on the basis of their creative accomplishments. The non-creative sample was matched with creative group on relevant demographic characteristics, namely, age, gender, education, and profession. Records of Visual Structural Images (VSIs) of two abstract concepts were classified into different categories. This analysis yielded three broad categories of VSI of both the concepts, namely, different irregular, horizontal, and vertical. However, in the case of counting, the horizontal category was subdivided into three subcategories, namely, horizontal image in one line, horizontal image in ten lines and horizontal image in varying number of lines. The vertical category was subdivided into two subcategories, namely, vertical image in one line and vertical image in ten lines. Chi-square test revealed that subjects of the present study vary significantly in their VSIs of both of the abstract concepts (counting and week) used for this purpose. A comparison of creative and non-creative individuals revealed significant.

Riaz, Mah Nazir., Ali, Nadia Nabat. (2002). Structural cognition: A comparison of creative and non-creative adults. Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies. Vol 18 (1-2) : 1-8

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Maximizing the motivated mind for emergent giftedness

Rea (2001) explains how the theory of the motivated mind conceptualizes the productive interaction of intelligence, creativity, and achievement motivation and shows how this theory can help educators to maximize students' emergent potential for giftedness. According to this theory, students' motivated minds are complex-adaptive systems comprised of two co-evolving psychological subsystems: cold-order thinking expressed as serious intelligence and hot-chaotic thinking expressed as fun creativity. When these co-evolving subsystems become fully differentiated and integrated students' complex capacity for giftedness emerges as fluid-adaptive thinking. This enhanced thinking capacity is both seriously intelligent and playfully creative at the same time. Students' optimal motivation for self-regulating and educators' ideal leadership style for promoting fluid-adaptive thinking are operationally described. The motivated mind is also compared and contrasted with J. Renzuffl's three rings of giftedness, H. Gardner's multiple intelligences, R. Sternberg's successful intelligence, and M. Csikszentmihalyi's optimal experience of flow.

Rea, Dan. (2001). Maximizing the motivated mind for emergent giftedness. Roeper-Review. Vol 23 (3): 157-164

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The history of the evolution of gifted identification procedures in Georgia

Williams (2001) studied the history of the evolution of gifted identification procedures in Georgia. Gifted education has come a long way in the development and acceptance of broader definitions of giftedness and more inclusive identification procedures. Educators have recognized that restrictive requirements which rely unilaterally on 10 scores fail to identify many gifted students; they have worked to change traditional notions of giftedness. This research focuses on the history of the evolution of multiple criteria procedures for gifted identification in Georgia from 1958 to 1997; it chronicles the events and personalities which brought about changes mandating that students be evaluated for gifted program admission on the basis of aptitude, achievement, motivation, and creativity. This research also parallels the development of Georgia rules mandating the use of multiple criteria with the nation-wide trend toward more inclusive procedures. It includes a discussion of research-based "best practices" for gifted identification and a comprehensive history of gifted education since the time of Thomas Jefferson.

Williams, Eulouise Etheridge Hamill. (2001). The history of the evolution of gifted identification procedures in Georgia. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 61 (8-A)

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Creativity and acculturation: Psychological and cultural effects on the divergent thinking of Cuban preadolescent immigrants entering the United State

Timmel (2001) studied the psychological and cultural effects on divergent thinking of Cuban preadolescent immigrants entering the United States. Cuban immigrants arrive by raft on the Florida coast almost daily. Many of the "Balseros" (or "raft-fugees", as this author calls them) who arrived in 1994 and 1995 were preadolescent children. They would have been in what Torrance termed "the fourth grade slump" in creative thinking (Torrance, 1967). Yet, creativity was needed by these children to understand and be understood in their new surroundings. Did their travails ignite the sleepy creativity within them at this age? Or did the acculturating process accentuate the fourth grade slump? In response, forty-four children in Dade County, Florida were studied for two consecutive years. Half were newly arrived Cuban children in the third, fourth, and fifth grades, and half were American children of the same demographics. Each year, each child received three divergent thinking tests and one personal interview. The first test was visual, Torrance's Tests of Creative Thinking, Figural version, where the children completed figures, and titled drawings. The second test was an auditory exercise where the children responded to sounds. The third set of scores was determined from the interview test, where uses for objects presented were analyzed. These scores were compared by nationality and by other demographic indicators. Concurrently, interview responses were qualitatively analyzed to discern social factors that might have affected the children's divergent thinking. The data suggest that upon arrival, the Cuban children displayed lower fluency (number of ideas) and flexibility (categorical differentiation of ideas) scores than their American peers. However, the originality (uniqueness of ideas) observed of them was greater. After a year, when the same tests and another interview were conducted, the Cuban children had dramatically improved their scores, equaling or surpassing their American peers on one fluency and all flexibility measures. Their originality scores remained higher than those of American children, but had not improved further. The interviews signaled that the Cuban children had acculturated fairly well to American society by then. Acculturation clearly affected divergent thinking at this age.

Timmel, Jill Lissette. (2001). Creativity and acculturation: Psychological and cultural effects on the divergent thinking of Cuban preadolescent immigrants entering the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 61 (9-A): 3468

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The passions of maturity: Morality and creativity in later life

Studies of moral development have concentrated on children and adolescents rather than older adults. Yet people continue to face and reflect on moral dilemmas throughout the life-course. This article examines how a group of older women and men from a rural New York community deal with issues of meaning and purpose in their mature years, and compares their experiences with those of elders from India. Through a series of ethnographic vignettes, three American approaches to the moral nature of late life are explored: viz., deep involvement in art, in public service, and in self-exploration. Rural people discovered many forms of passion, ranging from the personal, professional and political to the ethical and expressive. In their attempts to negotiate both passion and purpose, these individuals also found themselves contending with major contradictions in their own culture, especially the tensions between self fulfillment and social responsibility, duty and creativity, and personal meaning and reciprocity. Their sense of purpose is compared with that of sannyasins, older spiritual seekers from India, whose goals stressed a very distinct set of cultural ideals.

Savishinsky, Joel. (2001). The passions of maturity: Morality and creativity in later life. Journal of Cross Cultural Gerontology. Vol 16 (1): 41-55

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A study of relationship of Piagetian stage of cognitive development and intelligence to creative thinking potential

Upadhayay & Shukla (2001) Examined the interrelationship of the Piagetian stage of cognitive development and intelligence to creative thinking potential of 750 2nd-7th grade female primary students by employing a factorial design (2x3) for 7 separate TTCT indicators. The findings reveal that a significant difference is found in the creative thinking potential of female primary students at different Piagetian stages of cognitive development as well as the interactions between ( StagexIQ Group) showed significant difference except in verbal flexibility and verbal originality.

Upadhayay, Himani & Shukla, Asha. (2001). A study of relationship of Piagetian stage of cognitive development and intelligence to creative thinking potential. Psycho Lingua. Vol 31 (1): 21-24

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Exploration in literary creativity: Some preliminary observations

Srivastava & Misra (2001) try to explore the concept of creativity. Notes that creativity has been conceptualized in the West in terms of novelty and appropriateness of a product. In contrast, the Indian view is more process-oriented. It involves the experience of personal fulfillment. Its conception pertains to the primordial realm, or the expression of an inner essence or ultimate reality. To understand the nature of literary creativity in the Indian context, this study examined the contributions of Jnanpith awardees, the highest literary award in India, employing a case study approach. This paper reports some of the preliminary observations of the study. In particular, it analyzed the life course (such as awardees as prodigies, their frustration and sufferings, education and occupation, marital relationships, nonconformism, and contemporaneity in creative writing), network of enterprises, and creative process of the Jnanpith awardees. The creativity of Indian litterateurs is characterized by multiplicity in network of enterprises and the creative work aims to bring welfare to the humankind. The study has implications for understanding the indigenous nature of creativity in the Indian context.

Srivastava, Ashok K., Misra, Girishwar. (2001). Exploration in literary creativity: Some preliminary observations. Psychological Studies. Vol 46 (3): 148-160

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Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance

In understanding human behavior, psychologists have long been interested in what motivates specific actions. Debates have pitted those who favor extrinsic motivation (e.g., reward/punishment) against those who favor intrinsic motivation in an attempt to determine what best motivates individuals. This book provides a summary of what research has determined about both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and clarifies what questions remain unanswered. It revisits the debate about the effects of extrinsic incentives or constraints on intrinsic motivation and creativity and identifies theoretical advances in motivation research. It then focuses on the hidden costs and benefits of different types of achievement goals on motivation and performance. Theory and research findings are discussed on how extrinsic and intrinsic motivators may work in everyday life and over time. The book will be of interest to researchers in psychology, education, and business, as well as to a wider audience interested in promoting optimal motivation and performance.

Sansone, Carol., Harackiewicz, Judith M. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance. San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press, Inc. xix, 489 pp.

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Achievement and power motives, performance feedback, and creativity

Fodor & Carver (2000) Investigated if need for achievement measured by the TAT enhances creative performance in response to feedback concerning a prior performance. 144 undergraduates' TAT was scored for achievement motivation and power motivation. Ss later provided a solution to an engineering problem. The experimenter then gave them preprogrammed feedback on how well they performed (positive or negative feedback) and no feedback in a third condition. Feedback was couched in the language of both achievement and power imagery. Last, students rendered solutions to a second engineering problem. Two students performed ratings of each solution on dimensions designated as creativity and complexity. Ratings for the two dimensions moderately correlated with one another and were combined to form a single overall Creativity score. Achievement motivation correlated positively with Creativity score in the positive- and negative-feedback conditions. Power motivation correlated positively with Creativity in the positive-feedback condition, and negatively in the negative-feedback condition. Neither was significant in the no feedback condition. It was concluded that there is a differential response to negative feedback. Achievement-motivated people appear to benefit from it, whereas power-motivated people do not.

Fodor, Eugene M., Carver, Rodney A. (2000). Achievement and power motives, performance feedback, and creativity. Journal of Research in Personality. Vol 34 (4): 380-396

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Challenging demographic reductionism: An investigation of demographic diversity and value diversity in small groups

Rodriguez (2000) compared the effects of demographic (race, gender, and age) and value diversity on group-member satisfaction, perceived group fit (by outgroup members), group effectiveness, and group creativity. Contrary to expectations, demographic diversity was discovered to be unrelated to value diversity. Because the original impetus for demographic diversity is socio-political, in contrast to the alleged economic benefits of value diversity, it is, therefore, argued that they should not be confounded or misrepresented. Diversity in one area should not be assumed to lead to outcomes that would result from diversity in the other. Furthermore, it was determined that diversity in the three major demographic areas of race/nationality, gender, and age have differing effects on individual and group-level outcomes. Researcher's should exercise care, then, to not arbitrarily extend the results of research done in one area to another. Also contrary to expectations, this study failed to determine that value diversity was of any consequence to any of the previously specified outcomes. However, the basic group development model of Tuckman (1977) and others was affirmed: a clear, normative, group-level, value structure is essential for task effectiveness. At the group-level, "percent minority" (but not the unbiased measure of race/nationality diversity) had an adverse effect on personal satisfaction and perceived fit. In contrast, the unbiased measure of race/nationality diversity was positively related to both perceived fit and effectiveness. Also at the group-level, this study failed to find any association between either gender or age diversity and the investigated outcome variables. It was discovered, however, that gender-balanced groups establish greater levels of agreement on group-level terminal values. At the individual level, group members who reported higher satisfaction scores had a relative individual preference for "A World of Peace" and felt that their group norms favored the values of "Responsible, " "Ambitious," and "Friendship" more highly and "Clean" less highly.

Rodriguez, Ralph A. (2000). Challenging demographic reductionism: An investigation of demographic diversity and value diversity in small groups. Dissertation Abstracts International : Section B : The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 60 (7-B): 3621

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The influence of creativity, sex and type of school on creative self-perception

Khanam (1998) studied the influence of creativity, sex, and type of school on creative self-perception was investigated by testing 314 boys and girls ( aged 12-13 yrs) studying in Grade 7. The schools from which the children were taken are situated in Dhaka City, capital of Bangladesh. Boy students showed superiority over the girl students on creative self-perception. Although main effect of the type of school was not significant, the interaction effect of type of school and sex was significant. The 3-way interaction was also found to be significant.

Khanam, Mehtab. (1998). The influence of creativity, sex and type of school on creative self-perception. Social Science International. Vol 14 (1-2): 60-70

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Gifted kindergarten children in Kuwait

Nazar (1998) conducted this study identifies the behavioral characteristics of gifted children in kindergarten in Kuwait. Aspects included in this study were learning, motivation, creativity, leadership, and psychomotor skills. Three hundred children, their mothers (N = 300) and their teachers (N = 150) participated in the study. Analysis of data obtained from the parents and teachers showed significant differences between female and male children regarding the selected behavioral characteristics. Female children were more gifted in learning, while male children were more gifted in leadership and psychomotor skills. Only 10 children were found to be gifted in all five areas. Results suggest using multiple criteria in identifying the gifted behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Nazar, Fatima. (1998). Gifted kindergarten children in Kuwait. Journal of the Social Sciences. Vol 26 (3): 139-154.

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Challenging demographic reductionism: A pilot study investigating diversity in group composition

Rodriguez (1998) examined the impact of within-group value diversity on personal satisfaction, group creativity, and group effectiveness. 11 groups of undergraduate students participated. The characteristics of team members were summarized by measures of central tendency or dispersion, thereby yielding measurement of team properties. Individual participants were initially administered the Rokeach Value Survey. Groups were assigned 1 of 2 management cases. They were instructed to "analyze the situation, identify the key variables, identify alternative solutions, and present and defend a singular course of action before an audience composed of student-observers who have been assigned the alternate case." The groups had 12 wks between the time of initial assignments until the presentation due date. Student observers evaluated each presentation for style and content, using an evaluation form. After accounting for diversity in race/nationality, gender and age, value diversity predicted greater personal satisfaction, and higher perceived group creativity and effectiveness. The authors conclude that the results indicate that organizations should be more discerning in how they think about demographic and value diversity, in terms of both strategy and potential benefits.

Rodriguez, Ralph A. (1998) Challenging demographic reductionism: A pilot study investigating diversity in group composition. Small Group Research. Vol. 29 744-759

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Creativity, motivation, and "defiant" behavior: Young adolescents' perceptions of a middle school experience

Wright (1998) conducted a research to examined the creativity and perceptions of nine adolescents (three females, six males). Students were identified by teachers as having low academic motivation and varying levels of "defiant" behavior (i.e., "low," "moderate," and "high" according to school norms for conduct). Three additional students identified as motivated, well-adjusted, and "artistically talented" were included as a comparison group. All attended the same middle school, were in the eighth grade, and were considered academically "average" students. The investigation focused on (1) the nature of creativity among participants, (2) their perceptions of school, (3) ways creativity and school experiences influenced their academic motivation and defiant behavior, and (4) contexts that they found engaging and those they did not. Data collection involved both qualitative and quantitative techniques including a document review, participant observation, the Torrance Tests for Creative Thinking (TTCT verbal and figural-Form A), interviews, focus groups, and a design workshop for participants. Findings reveal that most of the "average, low motivated" students demonstrated above average creative potential (TTCT verbal) and had a number of characteristics that define creative people (e.g., strong sense of self, high emotional intelligence, intense desire for quality). Participants also perceived their relationships with teachers as the most critical aspect of their school experience and reported high stress and frustration related to testing and grades. Participants' academic motivation and defiant behavior in school were influenced by one or more of the following categories: (1) the quality of learning experiences (e.g., curriculum, instructional practices, and relationships with teachers); (2) a combination of home/school stress; and (3) situations in which students perceived a lack of support for their uniqueness or creative expression-including the extent to which they could freely express their opinions. Participants desired (1) greater involvement in curriculum development and in the evaluation process; (2) less emphasis on skills and more authentic learning; ( 3) greater diversity in sports, the arts, and other subject areas; (4) more discussion and group work; (5) more time for reflection and completion of projects; and (6) increased opportunities for leisure during the school day (i.e., rest, recreation, and relaxation both alone and with friends).

Wright, Sheila (1998). Creativity, motivation, and "defiant" behavior: Young adolescents' perceptions of a middle school experience. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A : Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol 59 (3-A).

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Creative thinking abilities and specific characteristics of the classroom environment of female high school students in Saudi Arabia

Al-Sulaiman (1998) tried to investigate the relationships between the creative thinking abilities of originality, fluency, and flexibility, and specific characteristics of classroom environment as perceived by tenth grade female students and their Arabic teachers. Such factors included the degree of emphasis on higher-/ lower-level thought processes, classroom climate, and classroom focus (teachers' vs. students' focus). A stratified sampling technique was used to represent most of the socio-economic groups. Participants were randomly chosen from 73 public high schools located in the four educational regions (northern, southern, eastern, and western) of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The study sample consisted of 569 students (485 Saudi and 84 non-Saudi) from 18 classes randomly selected from 16 randomly selected schools. In addition, 17 secondary school Saudi teachers who specialized in teaching Arabic subjects were selected to participate in the study. The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, Figural Form B, and the Classroom Activities Questionnaire were selected to determine the students' creative thinking abilities and classroom environment. Inferential and descriptive statistics including the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Analysis of Variance were used to test the hypotheses generated from the research questions. The study findings indicate a significant relationship between students' perceptions of the lower-level thought process of translation and the ability of fluency. Classroom focus and absence of lecture were significantly related to the abilities of originality and flexibility. Classroom climate, specifically the factor of less teacher talk, was correlated positively with all three creative thinking abilities. Also, the study results showed statistically significant differences between teachers' and students' perceptions of their classroom environment. Teachers reported more emphasis on both the higher and lower level thought processes and a more positive climate than did the students. The demographic variables of family income, school location, and student nationality were significantly related to the students' creative thinking abilities. The researcher recommends that the Presidency of Girls Education make it possible for teachers to participate in long-term staff development programs on how creative thinking abilities develop and are nurtured in the classroom.

Al-Sulaiman, Norah Ibrahim. (1998). Creative thinking abilities and specific characteristics of the classroom environment of female high school students in Saudi Arabia. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A : Humanities-and- Social-Sciences. Vol. 59 (3-A).

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From factors of production to factors of creation: "Best" model as a strategic management framework

Sharma (1998) Provides a holistic perspective on concepts of best managers and a strategic management framework model. Four factors are considered as essential components of the management decision making process: behavioral, economic, strategic, and technical (BEST). This BEST framework is presented in the diagrammatic form of a steering wheel. The BEST model also refers to 4 types of markets: labor, capital, product, and technological. From the BEST model, the concept of BEST analysis is derived and applied in a strategic management framework.
Issues discussed include factors in creation and production, behavior of organizations, and organizational culture. It is suggested that in a highly competitive environment, organizations with higher creativity would be able to create new markets and new ideas.

Sharma, Subhash. (1998). From factors of production to factors of creation: "Best" model as a strategic management framework. Abhigyan. Vol. 16, 43-47.

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From factors of production to factors of creation: "Best" model as a strategic management framework

Sharma (1998) Provides a holistic perspective on concepts of best managers and a strategic management framework model. Four factors are considered as essential components of the management decision making process: behavioral, economic, strategic, and technical (BEST). This BEST framework is presented in the diagrammatic form of a steering wheel. The BEST model also refers to 4 types of markets: labor, capital, product, and technological. From the BEST model, the concept of BEST analysis is derived and applied in a strategic management framework.
Issues discussed include factors in creation and production, behavior of organizations, and organizational culture. It is suggested that in a highly competitive environment, organizations with higher creativity would be able to create new markets and new ideas.

Sharma, Subhash. (1998). From factors of production to factors of creation: "Best" model as a strategic management framework. Abhigyan. Vol. 16, 43-47.

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A comparative study of intelligence and creativity in hearing impaired and normal boys and girls

Moorjhani et.al (1998) Compared intelligence and creativity in 80 subjects of 6-11 year old on hearing impaired and normal boys and girls. Intelligence was measured with Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices and creativity with the Wallach and Kogan Test of Creativity. Statistical analysis revealed that Subject with hearing performed better than the hearing impaired Subject on intelligence. The verbal stimulus of the Creativity Test did not exert any significant difference on the basis of hearing status, though differences were present based on gender and age.
On the visual stimulus hearing impaired Subject gave significantly more number of responses than the hearing Subject. When the number of unique responses were considered on the verbal stimulus, only age exerted a significant difference.

Moorjhani, JD., Jacob, EA., Nathawat, SS. (1998). A comparative study of intelligence and creativity in hearing impaired and normal boys and girls. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology. Vol 25, 200-205.

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Effect of Divorce on Children

Fear of abandonment as a mediator of the relations between divorce stressors and mother-child relationship quality and children's adjustment problems

Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, August, 2002 by Sharlene A. Wolchik, Jenn-Yun Tein, Irwin N. Sandler, Kathryn W. Doyle

Although the negative effects of parental divorce on adjustment problems have been extensively documented, the processes through which divorce leads to these outcomes have not been well articulated. A considerable body of literature has identified both social--environmental and intrapersonal factors that affect the development of adjustment problems in children following parental divorce. However, studies have not examined pathways to the development of these adjustment problems that involve the joint influence of social--environmental and intrapersonal factors. Identification of such pathways has clear implications for theories of the etiology of adjustment problems for children following parental divorce and should provide guidance for the design of effective prevention and treatment programs. Given that over 1 million children in the United States experience parental divorce each year (Cherlin, 1992), the public health implications of such programs are significant.

This study uses a prospective longitudinal design to examine the plausibility of a model in which children's fear that they will not be cared for (i.e., fear of abandonment) mediates the relations between two empirically supported correlates of children's postdivorce adjustment problems: mother-child relationship quality and divorce stressors. First, the research on children's postdivorce adjustment problems is discussed. Next, the literature on the relations between divorce stressors, as well as mother-child relationship quality, and postdivorce adjustment problems is briefly reviewed, and the limited empirical work on fear of abandonment is discussed. Finally, plausible linkages between divorce stressors, mother-child relationship quality, fear of abandonment, and children's postdivorce adjustment problems are articulated and theoretical support for a mediational model is provided.

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Potential adjustment and social adaptation problems of children who have experienced parental divorce include increased levels of aggression, depression, and anxiety; poor academic performance; school drop-out; peer relationship problems; drug and alcohol use; early sexual behavior; and adolescent pregnancy (e.g., Amato & Keith, 1991a; Hetherington et al., 1992). Although for some children the effects of this transition in family structure are mild and short lived, for other children, divorce leads to clinically significant and lasting adjustment problems during childhood and adolescence (see Amato & Keith, 1991a). Further, several longitudinal studies have shown elevated rates of mental health problems in adults who experienced parental divorce as children (e.g., Chase-Landale, Cherlin, & Kiernan, 1995; Rodgers, Power, & Hope, 1997; Ross & Mirowsky, 1999). For example, in a prospective study, Rodgers et al. found the odds ratio of being above the clinical level on mental health problems for parental divorce to be 1.70 at age 23 and 1.85 at age 33.

The research focused on predictors of variation in children's postdivorce adjustment problems has consistently found that two social--environmental factors, divorce stressors and custodial parent--child relationship quality, are significantly associated with postdivorce adjustment problems. It is well documented that divorce often involves a wide array of disruptions or stressors, including increased fights between parents, exposure to parental distress, changes in residence and schools, involvement with parents' new partners, and loss of time with one or both parents, as well as extended family members (e.g., Sandler, Wolchik, Braver, & Fogas, 1986). There is considerable evidence indicating a significant relation between divorce stressors and children's postdivorce adjustment problems (e.g., Sandler, Wolchik, Braver, & Fogas, 1991; Stolberg & Anker, 1983; Wolchik, Wilcox, Tein, & Sandler, 2000). It also is well documented that changes in parenting, such as decreased warmth and affection, poorer communication, and erratic discipline, commonly occur after divorce (e.g., Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1982; Peterson & Zill, 1986; Simons et al., 1996). Researchers have consistently documented that high levels of warmth and affection in the custodial mother-child relationship are negatively related to postdivorce adjustment problems (e.g., Hetherington et al., 1992; Simons, Lin, Gordon, Conger, & Lorenz, 1999; Wolchik et al., 2000). Further, several researchers have shown that divorce stressors and mother--child relationship quality interact to affect children's postdivorce adjustment problems, such that the relation between divorce stressors and adjustment problems is mitigated at high levels of warmth and affection (e.g., Camara & Resnick, 1987; Wolchik et al., 2000).

The current study tests whether the effects of both of these social--environmental factors can be accounted for through a common mediating pathway, their joint effect on an intrapersonal factor, children's fear of being abandoned. From a motivational theory of stress and coping (Skinner & Wellborn, 1994, 1997), stressors affect children's adjustment problems because they threaten one or more of three basic needs: relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Sandler (2001) proposed that the effects of both stressors and protective resources work through their effects on children's perceptions of satisfaction of these basic needs. He proposed that stressors lead to higher adjustment problems by threatening basic need satisfaction, whereas protective resources reduce adjustment problems either by directly promoting need satisfaction or by decreasing the negative effects of stressors on need satisfaction. This paper proposes that postdivorce stressors particularly threaten one basic need, children's need to be part of a caring and stable social group (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and that the protective resource of a high quality relationship with the primary residential parent reduces this threat.

Several researchers have suggested that divorce threatens children's need to be part of a caring social group. For example, Kurdek and Berg (1987) note that children whose parents divorce may believe that they will lose contact with their residential, as well as nonresidential, parent. Similarly, Gardner (1976) observes that children who experience the departure of one parent from the home wonder what is to prevent the remaining parent from also leaving. Wallerstein (1985) notes that divorce can cause a pervasive sense of vulnerability for children as the protective, nurturing aspects of the family diminish. She also observes that children often experience fears of being lost in the shuffle and have concerns that their needs will be disregarded because their parents are so focused on their own needs.

Of the multiple theoretical perspectives that focus on central social relationships, the two most relevant to the current study are need for relatedness (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and attachment (e.g., Bowlby, 1973, 1980). Although these theories differ in many respects, they converge in predicting that fear of being abandoned by one's primary caregivers leads to adjustment problems, and thus provide support for the importance of the model that is being tested. As articulated by Baumeister and Leary (1995), need for relatedness includes both a need for frequent personal contact that is primarily affectively positive and free from negative affect and a sense that an interpersonal bond characterized by affective concern will endure over time. From an attachment perspective, the hallmark of secure attachment involves open and relaxed communication between the parent and child and the perceived availability of and reliance on the attachment figure when distressed (Bowlby, 1969/1982). Increasing evidence suggests that humans have a need for a sense of felt security in their relationships with parents, peers, and intimate partners and that these relationships have significant influence on a variety of developmental and behavioral outcomes (see Bowlby, 1980; Bretherton & Munholland, 1999; Dozier, Stevenson, Lee, & Velligan, 1991). For example, Baumeister and Leary (1995) review evidence that individuals who lack a sense of belongingness experience higher levels of mental and physical illnesses, such as depression, somatic problems, and decreased immunocompetence. Further, researchers have demonstrated that insecure attachment serves as a risk factor for maladjustment in the context of risk factors from multiple domains, such as family stress and low child IQ (e.g., Greenberg, 1999).

It is important to note that the current study is not a test of either of these theoretical perspectives. Neither internal working models of attachment nor need for relatedness is assessed. Rather, children's fear of being abandoned, which is likely related to both attachment and need for relatedness, is examined. The limited empirical work on fear of abandonment has defined this construct as including worries about the stability of children's relationships with their parents, as well as continuity of living arrangements. Kurdek and Berg (1987) examined relations between several divorce-related beliefs (peer ridicule and avoidance, maternal blame, paternal blame, self-blame, hope for reunification, fear of abandonment) and mother, teacher, and child reports of adjustment problems. Only fear of abandonment was significantly related to children's reports of anxiety in their sample of White, middle class children. Using an inner-city, predominantly ethnic minority sample, Wolchik, Ramirez, Sandler, Fisher, Organ ista, and Brown (1993) examined the relations between children's postdivorce adjustment problems and fear of abandonment, paternal blame, maternal blame, and hope for reconciliation. Significant relations were found only for fear of abandonment, with higher scores being significantly related to both mother and child reports of children's adjustment problems.

At a theoretical level, it is plausible that the relations between divorce stressors and adjustment problems, as well as between mother-child relationship quality and adjustment problems, are mediated by fear of abandonment. As noted earlier, divorce often sets in motion a multitude of stressors and changes in the mother-child relationship. The experience of stressors that disrupt children's social connections to their primary residential or nonresidential parent, involve conflict between their parents, or indicate vulnerability of their parents is likely to create concerns about the ability or willingness of their family to continue to care for them. On the other hand, the interactions that occur in a high quality relationship between the child and the residential parent provide evidence that the child will be cared for and may either directly reduce concerns about being abandoned or mitigate the effects of divorce stressors on fear of abandonment.

The current study tests the plausibility of a model in which the relations between children's adjustment problems and both divorce stressors and mother-child relationship quality are accounted for by a common intrapersonal factor, children's fear that they will be abandoned. In this model, divorce stressors and mother-child relationship quality relate to fear of abandonment and fear of abandonment relates to adjustment problems. Further, the relations between divorce stressors and mother-child relationship quality and adjustment problems are mediated through fear of abandonment. Given empirical and theoretical work on the stress-mitigating effects of high quality mother-child relationships in divorced families (e.g., Camara & Resnick, 1987; Sandler, 2001; Wolchik et al., 2000), the model also tests whether divorce stressors and mother-child relationship quality interact to predict fear of abandonment. It was predicted that the relation between divorce stressors and fear of abandonment will be weaker for child ren with high mother-child relationship quality than that for children with low mother-child relationship quality.

Two methodological aspects of the current study are noteworthy. First, the study utilizes a prospective longitudinal design in which Time 1 divorce stressors, mother-child relationship quality, and fear of abandonment predict Time 2 adjustment problems, controlling for Time 1 adjustment problems. Because prospective longitudinal data satisfy the condition of time precedence, they are particularly useful in testing the plausibility of causal directionality between variables. Second, to reduce concerns that observed relations might be due to shared method variance across the measures or self-report negativity bias and to allow the examination of the robustness of the findings across models, mother as well as child reports of mother-child relationship quality and children's adjustment problems were used.

METHOD

Participants

The sample consists of 216 children who experienced parental divorce within the previous 2 years and their primary residential mothers. These families were participants in the Divorce Adjustment Project (Sandler, Tein, & West, 1994), a longitudinal study of children's postdivorce psychological adjustment. The primary goal of this study was to identify short-term longitudinal correlates of postdivorce adjustment problems that could be used to guide the development of prevention programs for children who lived primarily with their mothers, the residential arrangement that characterizes 80% of divorced families (U.S. Bureau of Census, 1998). Thus, neither primary residential fathers nor noncustodial fathers were interviewed. The time period of 2 years was used given that restabilization of the family usually occurs 2-3 years after divorce (Hetherington, 1999). Only families who participated in both Time 1 and Time 2 assessments, which occurred 5.5 months apart, were included. The 5-month time interval was used b ecause it was long enough to allow for change in mental health problems and short enough to detect the prospective effects of stress and adaptation processes that occur at Time 1 (see Sandler et al., 1994; Sheets, Sandler, & West, 1996, for other examples of prospective longitudinal effects across this time period).

Court records were used to identify potential participants. A random sample of 1,236 families with children was identified from the countywide records of divorces granted in the last 2 years. Participation in the study was solicited by an initial mailing and a follow-up phone call. Forty-nine percent of selected families were reached by phone, and of these, 73% met the following eligibility criteria: the family contained a child between the ages of 8 and 12; the mother had not remarried and did not have a live-in partner; the child resided with her/his mother at least half the time; mother and child were fluent in English; the family lived in and expected to remain in the greater Phoenix metropolitan area for the study period; and child's residential status (i.e., primary residence with mother) was expected to remain stable over the study period. The primary reasons for ineligibility were that the mother had remarried (44%), the family had moved outside of the greater Phoenix metropolitan area (44%), and the child lived with the mother less than half of the time (9%). In families where there was more than one child in the targeted age range, one child was randomly selected to ensure independence of response.

Fifty-eight percent (n = 256) of the families who were eligible and invited to participate in the study participated in the Time 1 assessment. Children interviewed at Time 1 averaged 9.59 years of age (SD = 1.19); 44% were female. Eighty-six percent of the children had at least one sibling living with them. The majority of the mothers were Caucasian/non-Hispanic (87%); 9% were Hispanic, 2% were Black, and 3% were of another racial or ethnic background. Mothers averaged 35.3 years of age (SD = 5.5). Twenty-four percent of the mothers had completed college or attended graduate programs; 40% had taken some college courses or completed technical school; 28% had completed high school; and 8% had less than a high school education. Mother's average yearly income fell in the range of $20,001-$25,000. The average time since physical separation was 26.6 months (SD = 13.3); the average time since divorce was 13.4 months (SD = 6.5). In 63% of the families, the mothers had sole legal custody; the rest had joint legal cust ody. Mothers reported that 40% of the children typically had unrestricted contact with their fathers, 26% saw their fathers on a regular basis, 27% saw their father only occasionally, and 7% had no contact with their fathers at all.

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Eighty-four percent (n = 216) of the families who completed the Time 1 assessment also completed the Time 2 assessment. The reasons that families attritted or were attritted from Time 2 assessment were (a) referral for treatment by project staff due to children scoring above the clinical cutoff on the Child Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1981) or reporting current suicidal ideation (n = 19), (b) moving out of the Phoenix metropolitan area (n = 5), (c) becoming ineligible (n = 1), or (d) refusing to participate at Time 2 (n = 15). Demographic data, which were collected at Time 1, for those families who participated in both assessments are as follows: These children averaged 9.64 years of age at the first assessment (SD = 1.20); 44% were female. The majority of the mothers were Caucasian/non-Hispanic (86%); 9% were Hispanic, 2% were Black, and 3% were of another racial or ethnic background. Mothers averaged 35.5 years of age at the first assessment (SD = 5.7); 25% of them had completed college or attended gradua te programs; 39% had taken some college courses or completed technical school; 27% had completed high school; and 9% had less than a high school education. Mother's average yearly income fell in the range of $20,001-$25,000. The average time since physical separation was 26.3 months (SD = 13); the average time since divorce was 13.3 months (SD = 6.5). In 63% of the families, the mothers had sole legal custody; the rest had joint legal custody. Mothers reported that 41% of the children typically had unrestricted contact with their fathers, 26% saw their fathers on a regular basis, 26% saw their father only occasionally, and 6% had no contact with their fathers at all.

Attrition analyses were conducted on the Time 1 variables to compare families who completed the Time 2 assessment to those families who did not. Chi-square analyses were applied to test the categorical variables and t statistics were applied to test the continuous variables. Mothers from families who completed the Time 1 assessment but did not complete the Time 2 assessment were older (M = 35.54) than those who completed the Time 2 assessment (M = 33.80, t = 2.10, p < .05). Also, children from families who did not complete the Time 2 assessment reported higher fear of abandonment (M = 0.93), more divorce stressors (M = 4.55), and higher depression scores (M = 12.37) than children who completed the Time 2 assessment (M = 0.47, t = 2.76, p < .01; M = 3.12, t = 3.00, p < .01; and M = 6.22, t = 3.60, p < .01, respectively).

Procedure

Mothers and children were interviewed separately by trained interviewers. After confidentiality was explained, mothers signed informed consent forms and children signed assent forms indicating their willingness to participate. Families received $50 compensation for each assessment.

Predictors
Fear of Abandonment. Children completed the 6-item Fear of Abandonment subscale of the Children's Beliefs about Parental Divorce Scale (Kurdek & Berg, 1987). This subscale assesses concerns about the stability of relationships with parents and continuity of living arrangements. Responses are dichotomous (true; false). Kurdek and Berg obtained a 9-week stability coefficient of .52 for this subscale. Given the dichotomous response format and highly skewed responses, confirmatory analysis with MPlus (Muthen & Muthen, 1998) rather than Cronbach alpha was used to test the factor structure. A key feature of MPlus is its ability to model factor structure with response variables that are binary, nonnormally distributed, or both. The analysis showed that a 4-item measure fit the data, [chi square](df = 2) = 3.41, ns, better than the 6-item measure, [chi square](df = 9) = 28.52, p < .001. These results are consistent with the results of Kurdek and Berg's factor analysis that indicated that the two items included in the 6-item but not the 4-item scale had much lower factor loadings than the other items. The following four items were used: I worry that my parents will want to live without me; It's possible that my parents will never want to see me again; I worry that I will be left all alone; I think that one day I may have to live with a friend or relative. Reliability was assessed using a confirmatory factor analytic approach that incorporates both latent theoretical constructs and measured variables into a single structural equation model (Bollen, 1989; Hayduk, 1987). The average reliability (squared correlation of the observed variable and its latent variable) was .53. Thirty-three percent of the children endorsed one or more of the items (22% endorsed one item, 8% endorsed two items, 2% endorsed three items, and 1% endorsed four items).

Divorce Stressors. Children reported on the number of negative divorce events that occurred within the last 3 months on the Divorce Events Schedule for Children (DESC; Sandler et al., 1986), a "tailor-made" life events scale designed to assess a representative sample of stressors that children may experience after divorce. Child report was used because children are the best reporter of their awareness of the occurrence of negative events, and theoretically, awareness of stressful events is necessary for primary appraisals of threat, which leads to stress arousal (e.g., Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For this scale, stressors were defined as events that typically occur to a child or in a child's environment following parental divorce and would generally be perceived as negative by the child. Knowledgeable key informants (i.e., parents and children who had experienced divorce, mental health professionals, and lawyers who worked with divorced families) identified over 200 events that they believed had an important im pact on children after divorce. The research team used these events to develop nonoverlapping events that did not involve a symptom of a psychological disorder or physical problem and were primarily beyond the child's control. This process yielded 62 events (see Sandler et al., 1986, for additional information on scale development). In a separate sample of children who had experienced parental divorce, children rated whether each event occurred within the past 3 months and whether the event was positive, neutral, or negative. To minimize possible contamination of participants' adjustment and their assessment of the valence of events (e.g., Monroe, 1982), scores were derived using consensually based classification (Sandler et al., 1991; i.e., events were classified as consensually negative or positive if 80% or more of the children in the scale development sample who had experienced the event rated it in that direction). Sixteen of the 62 events were consensually classified as negative; the number of negative events that occurred is the divorce stressors score. Similar to other life events scales, the events are heterogenous in content. Examples of negative events are "Relatives said bad things about mom/dad"; "Dad missed scheduled visits"; "Mom and dad argued in front of me"; "Parents physically hit/hurt each other"; "I had to give up pets/toys/things I like." The divorce stressor score correlates with internalizing and externalizing problems in cross-sectional and short-term longitudinal studies (Sandler et al., 1986, 1991). Two week test-retest reliability has been shown to be adequate (r = .85; Sandler, Wolchik, & Braver, 1988).

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Divorce Rate on The Born Again (Strong Believer) & Non Born Again

Divorce rate no lower among the born-again
Christian Century, Oct 5, 2004

In one of George Barna's largest national surveys on marriage and divorce, the pollster has confirmed previous findings that born-again Christian adults have the same likelihood of divorce (35 percent) as other Americans.

But the California-based researcher, whose primary market for books and seminars is the broad evangelical world, also proposes that one reason for the similar finding is that couples who profess Jesus as savior are also more likely to marry than to live together.

"If the non-born-again population were to marry at the same rate as the born-again group," Barna said, "it is likely their divorce statistic would be roughly 38 percent."

Using a representative sample of 3,614 adults interviewed between January and April this year, the Barna Group found that the divorce rate is quite similar to that reflected in a survey ten years ago. (See www.barna.org.) This was despite the research group's observation that many conservative churches attempt to discourage congregants from considering divorce.

Faith perspectives make a difference in whether adults agree with the teaching that divorce is a sin unless adultery has been committed but not as much of a difference as might be expected, according to Barna.

Born-again adults were twice as likely in the 2004 survey as nonborn-again adults (24 percent against 10 percent) to affirm that teaching. However, a majority of the born-again group (52 percent) disagreed that divorce without adultery is sin, whereas 74 percent of the non-born-again adults disagreed.

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Long Term Effect Of Divorce

The long arms of divorce
By Lauren Aaronson
MOST PEOPLE WORRY about how divorce will affect the kids. Now, researchers say, they may have to worry about the grandkids, too--even those who haven't yet been born.

Paul R. Amato and Jacob Cheadle, two Pennsylvania State University sociologists, sifted through 20 years of information on divorced families. The data show that the grandchildren of divorced couples end up with less education, more turbulent marriages and more distant relationships with their parents. These troubles occurred most often when the middle generation suffered similar divorce-related consequences.

Although other studies have shown that marital problems tend to run in families, few studies have probed these links beyond two generations. Divorce may set off a chain reaction, the researchers conclude, with problems for one generation contributing to problems for the next.

The good news? Divorce isn't uniformly harmful to children, nor does it necessarily result in long-term psychological distress. Studies show most children whose parents divorce go on to develop into well-adjusted adults. Counseling may also deflect trouble.

Source :
Psychology Today, May-June, 2005

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Polygamy and Scholastic Achievement

Scholastic achievement and family marital structure: Bedouin-Arab adolescents from monogamous and polygamous families in Israel.
By : Elbedour S, Bart WM, Hektner JM.
In a sample of Bedouin-Arab adolescents from monogamous and polygamous families in the Negev region of Israel, the authors examined scholastic achievement levels in the subjects of Arabic, English, Hebrew, and mathematics. There were no significant differences in the scholastic achievement levels in those 4 disciplines between adolescents from monogamous families and those from polygamous families. There was, however, a significant interaction between gender and family marital structure for Hebrew scores: Polygamous family structures tended to engender higher Hebrew scores for the male participants, whereas monogamous family structures tended to engender higher Hebrew scores for the female participants (boys in polygamous families and girls in monogamous families achieved higher Hebrew scores).

However, the major overall finding was that polygamous family marital structures did not affect deleteriously the scholastic achievement levels of the Bedouin-Arab participants.

Source

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